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Social Science Approaches to Volcanic Risk Management - an annotated list of published and unpublished material.

Literature on volcanic risk management is included in this bibliography. Some of the references have been summarised by short annotations, submitted by research students and more established academics in the field. If you would like to add a missing reference or submit an annotation, please e-mail it to Tom Mitchell (t.mitchell@ids.ac.uk). We hope this becomes a useful resource for researchers examining volcanoes from a disaster risk management perspective.

Contributors: Sian Crosweller, Kate Donovan, Jean-Christophe Gaillard, Kat Haynes, Ilan Kelman, Catherine Lowe, Katie Oven, Eleanor Parker and John Twigg.

Compiled: Tom Mitchell

Alcantara-Ayala, I., 2002, 'Geomorphology, natural hazards, vulnerability and prevention of natural disasters in developing countries.' Geomorphology 47: 107-124.
This is a clear paper that discusses and defines some key terms such as hazard and vulnerability. The focus of the paper is in highlighting that natural disasters are not solely the cause of a natural hazard event (such as volcanic activity) but that the disaster is the result of the intersection of the natural hazard and the human system and their associated vulnerabilities. The paper describes how the focus in the past has been on understanding the natural hazard event, whereas in recent years there has been a shift, even by physical scientists, to consider the social, economic, political and cultural factors that increase a person's vulnerability to the hazard. The paper also discusses why developing countries often suffer greater human losses in a disaster - due to the greater likelihood of developing countries being located in marginal lands, and the social, economic and political systems that restrict people's access to resources to cope in a disaster.
CL

Basher, R., 2006. Global early warning systems for natural hazards: systematic and people-centred. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 364, 2167-2182
The paper gives an international perspective, focusing on the ISDR's strategy to facilitate holistic approaches to warning and informing as a primary component in the risk reduction process. The paper discusses the role of scientific hazard assessment and technical approaches and the need for a new systems approach. Thereafter discussion of integration with social vulnerability in order that a well rounded assessment of risk may be gained and an appropriate warning and informing system be implemented. There is useful discussion of how the generic system proposed by the ISDR's Platform for Early Warning may be adapted in order that it may cater for the needs of all countries and all hazards. (see PPEW website http://www.unisdr.org/ppew/, specifically Developing Early Warning Systems: A Checklist)

Bankoff. G., 2001, Rendering the world unsafe: 'Vulnerability' as a western Discourse. Disasters, 25 (1) 19 - 35.
Although many of the concepts covered in this paper are now widely accepted this is still an excellent paper, it explicitly illustrates the need to take into account local culture and environmental stimuli (in terms of a human behavioural ecology perspective) when developing research methodologies and disaster interventions. It provides an alternative perspective on 'vulnerability' in hazard prone regions, Bankoff considers historical perspectives that have lead to the pervasive framework in which vulnerability to natural hazards is presented from a western perspective (the "them and "us" story) and how this perspective can be a key factor in the application of well intentioned but inappropriate risk reduction measures. Bankoff's focus is the Philippines, he evaluates how environment and cultural values inform local risk perceptions of what constitutes 'hazard and disaster' and evaluates the local and external stakeholders "risk knowledge".

If this paper of interest then also see the following books and references within:

  • Bankoff, G. 2002 Cultures of Disaster: Society and Natural Hazards in the Philippines. RoutledgeCurzon. (paper above appears as chapter in this book - see chapter 8 in addition)
  • Hoffman S, Oliver Smith A. (Editors) 1999. The Angry Earth: Disaster in Anthropological Perspective. Routledge, imprint Taylor & Francis Books Ltd
  • Hoffman S, Oliver Smith A. (Editors) 2002. Catastrophe and Culture: The Anthropology of Disaster (School of American Research Advanced Seminar S.) James Currey Publishers
  • Torrence R, Grattan J (Editor) 2002. Natural Disasters and Cultural Change (One World Archaeology Series). Routledge, an imprint of Taylor & Francis Books Ltd
  • Bankoff G, Frerks G, Hilhorst, D 2004 Mapping Vulnerability: Disasters, Development and People. Earthscan
Bankoff, G., 2004b, In the eye of the storm: the social construction of the forces of nature and the climatic and seismic construction of God in the Philippines'. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 35 (1), 91-111.
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Banzon-Bautista, M.C.R. (Ed.) 1993, In the Shadow of the Lingering Mt. Pinatubo Disaster. Quezon City and Amsterdam: University of the Philippines-CSSP and University of Amsterdam-Center for Asian Studies.
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Banzon-Bautista, C., 1996, The Mount Pinatubo disaster and the people of Central Luzon. In: Newhall, C.G., Punongbayan, R.S. (Eds.), Fire and Mud: Eruptions and Lahars of Mt Pinatubo, Philippines. University of Washington Press / Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Seattle / Quezon City, pp. 151-161
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Becker, J., Smith, R., Johnston, D. and Munro, A., 2001, Effects of the 1995-1996 Ruapehu eruptions and people's perceptions of volcanic hazards after the event. The Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies 2001-1. http://www.massey.ac.nz/~trauma/issue/2001-1/becker.htm (accessed 20 October 2006).
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Birkmann, J. 2006 'Measuring vulnerability to promote disaster-resilient societies: Conceptual frameworks and definitions.' In Birkmann, J.(ed.) Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazards. UNU Press: Tokyo.
Following the World Conference on Disaster Reduction and the development of the Hyogo Framework for Action, this chapter stresses the need for a shift from the quantification and analysis of hazard towards the identification and assessment of vulnerabilities. Birkmann begins with an overview of the key terms associated with vulnerability and risk before presenting a series of conceptual frameworks of vulnerability based upon six different schools of thought. Despite some similarities, the author acknowledges there are a number of uncertainties relating to vulnerability models. For example, is coping capacity part of vulnerability or should it be viewed as a separate feature? Does vulnerability encompass exposure? What should vulnerability assessment cover?

Beyond this chapter Birkmann et al. go on to discuss how vulnerability can be measured with consideration given to global, national, sub-national and local approaches with examples from Africa, Asia, the Americas and Europe. Overall, this is a timely, all encompassing publication that is essential reading for academics, policy makers and practitioners alike.
KO

Blong, R.J. 1984, Volcanic Hazards: A Sourcebook on the Effects of Eruptions. Sydney, Australia: Academic Press.
Nearly a generation after its publication, this book is still essential reading. Systematically summarising much of the state of knowledge of volcano-society interactions at the time, the book is heavily referenced permitting verification of statements, includes the author's own extensive experiences, and admirably balances and combines physical and social sciences plus their practical applications. The main aspect lacking in this publication is an update. Much has been learned on volcanoes since its publication on topics such as indigenous knowledge, vulnerability analysis and reduction, and volcano-related livelihoods which would complement the material provided.
IK

Boruff, B.J., Emrich, C. and Cutter, S.L. 2005, Erosion Hazard Vulnerability of US Coastal Counties. Journal of Coastal Research 21 (5): 932-942.
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Cardona, O. D. (1997) 'Management of the volcanic crises of Galeras volcano: Social, economic and institutional aspects.' Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 77: 313-324.
Discussion of the management of multiple crises at Galeras volcano from around 1989 involving the interaction of numerous actors such as politicians, scientists, and the media. A good, detailed description of what took place, highlighting where things went wrong, with potential reasons behind some of the actions taken. The paper concludes with a summary of suggestions for improving future risk communications.
SC

Chester, D.K., 2005b. Volcanoes, society, and culture. In: Marti, J., Ernst, G. (Eds.), Volcanoes and the Environment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 404-439.
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Chester, D.K., 2005, 'Theology and disaster studies: The need for dialogue.' Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal research (146): 319-328
Chester argues that religion, and society's beliefs play a vital role in hazard management. Although he concentrates on the Christian view point in the main discussion he develops his theory to include other religions that shape our world. It is also interesting to read his case studies on the influence of religious views in the so called well educated western world, highlighting that it is not just the "backward" third world that are fatalistic and rely on spiritual beliefs for guidance. It is a highly topical article providing an interdisciplinary view on future mitigation management in volcanic regions.
KD

Chester, D.K., Duncan, A.M., Dibben, C., Guest J.E. and Lister, P.H. 1999, 'Mascali, Mount Etna Region Sicily: An Example of Fascist Planning during the 1928 Eruption and its continuing Legacy'. Natural Hazards 19: 29-46.
This thoughtful and well researched paper considers the eruption, its impact and the emergency response to it, in the context of the politics and planning policies of Italy's then Fascist government. The immediate response - evacuation - appears to have been handled well, and the government built a new town on a grand scale, symbolising a modern Fascist future. The considerable propaganda success of these efforts is contrasted with the longer-term economic stagnation of the region under Fascist rule. There are concluding comments on the persistence of a responsive approach to disaster management in Italy after World War II.
JT

Chester, D.K., Dibben, C.J.L. and Duncan, A.M., 2002, 'Volcanic hazard assessment in western Europe.' Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 115(3-4): 411-435.
This paper starts with an introduction of how volcanology, and its management, has changed over time, citing a number of examples of successfully and unsuccessfully managed crises. It then goes on to say how volcanology has become more interdisciplinary and "orientated strongly to the proactive reduction of human vulnerability," with an overview of the 'dominant' approach and 'radical' critiques. There is a large discussion on the contribution of the IDNDR, but highlighting the limitations of it; for example, that much of the literature produced during this decade was still largely focussed on 'pure' research. The authors then use 3 volcanoes (Furnas (Azores), Etna, and Vesuvius) to illustrate progress and highlight issues. The paper concludes with some suggestions for future directions, including the remit of the ISDR. SC

Crittenden, K.S., 2001, Can this town survive? Case study of a buried Philippine town. Natural Hazards Review 2 (2), 72-79.
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Crittenden, K.S, Rodolfo, K.S., 2002, Bacolor town and Pinatubo volcano, Philippines: coping with recurrent lahar disaster. In: Torrence, R., Grattan, J. (Eds.), Natural Disasters and Cultural Change. Routledge, London, pp. 43-65.
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Crittenden, K.S., Lamug, C.B. and Nelson, G.L., 2003. Socioeconomic influences on livelihood recovery of Filipino families experiencing recurrent lahars. Philippine Sociological Review 51, 115-134.
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Cronin, S.J., Gaylord, D.R., Charley, D., Alloway, B.V., Wallez, S. and Esau J.W., 2004, 'Participatory methods of incorporating scientific with traditional knowledge for volcanic hazard management on Ambae Island, Vanuatu.' Bulletin of Volcanology 66(7): 652-668.
The authors attempt to explain how using an adapted version of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods can help to combine scientific and traditional knowledge, and therefore increase the success of education programs. An outline to the nature of Vanuatu communities and their reactions to previous programs illustrates the problem. The basis of PRA is then explained, followed by how the authors went about conducting their study. This included meetings and participant observation, discovering the natural order of the communities being studied, also getting groups of residents to draw 'hazard' maps of their community, and discussing the community volcanic emergency plan. Follow-up visits made 6 months later reviewed the emergency plans, the hazard maps, and the emergency management guidelines, raising a few specific issues to be resolved for successful management in the future. Overall it was deemed that the work had been successful in improving the preparation and knowledge of communities by incorporating the way that local populations think about hazards rather than the 'outsiders' (the scientists).
SC

Cronin, S.J., Gaylord, D.T., Charley, D., Alloway, B.V., Wallez, S., and Esau, J.W. ,2004, 'Participatory methods of incorporating scientific with traditional knowledge for volcanic hazard management on Ambae Island, Vanuatu.' Bulletin of Volcanology 66: 652-668.
This paper describes an unconventional method of emergency planning and educational outreach for volcanic regions. Using Participatory Rural Appraisal approaches Cronin et al. initiates a series of community based exercises in order to improve emergency plans, hazard maps and volcanic hazard understanding in two villages on Ambae Island, Vanuatu. Through these community exercises improvements to existing emergency plans can be made and the community awareness increased as local indigenous knowledge is encouraged and "western" scientific techniques take a step back. The investigation is a great example of "alternative" mitigation methods and their potential for effective mitigation in other high-risk isolated communities.
KD

Cutter, S., 1996, 'Vulnerability to Environmental Hazards.' Progress in Human Geography 20 (4): 529-539.
Cutter presents 18 separate definitions of vulnerability present in the literature and then goes on to outline the 'Hazards of Place Model' which is an integration of these various definitions from a geographers point of view. She highlights that understanding vulnerability is essential to the development of hazard mitigation strategies.
CL

Cutter, S.L., B.J. Boruff and W.L. Shirley (2003) 'Social Vulnerability to Environmental Hazards.' Social Science Quarterly 84 (2), pp. 242-261.
Following on from the 'Hazards of Place Model' above, the authors here present a statistical method of using United States census data to quantify social vulnerability. The result is called the Social Vulnerability Index (SoVI) and consists of 11 factors: wealth, age, density of built environment, single sector economic dependence, housing stock and tenancy, race, ethnicity, occupation, and infrastructure dependence. The SoVI for each US County is calculated and mapped. The authors then discuss using this method to predict disaster impacts in the future.

Although this paper does not relate specifically to volcanic hazards, the methodology can be transferred to aid the study of volcanic vulnerability. For other applications of the SoVI see: Cutter, Susan, L. and Emrich, Christopher, T., 2006. Moral Hazard, Social Catastrophe: The Changing Face of Vulnerability along the Hurricane Coasts. The Annals of the American Academy 604, pp. 102-112.
CL

Davis, M.S., Ricci, T. and Mitchell, L. 2005, 'Perceptions of risk for volcanic hazards at Vesuvio and Etna, Italy.' The Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies (1).
This paper investigates how public perceptions may indicate whether people may or may not undertake preparedness activities, and how this information might be useful for improving the effectiveness of public education. Vesuvius and Etna have been used as contrasting case studies - the former having longer periods of dormancy, a more explosive predicted behaviour, and also a larger population at risk. A survey of local residents at each volcano was carried out, which included questions related to: salience of the hazard, risk perception, personal vulnerability, anxiety/fear of hazard, feelings of self efficacy, and trust in officials in a hope of finding some patterns. The results from the Etna surveys reflect what you would expect from citizens who have been dealing successfully with the recurrent volcanic hazard for some time. However, there are some "disturbing" results from residents near Vesuvius, many relating to the lack of control they feel they have over protecting themselves from an eruption, and they also seem to lack faith in the preparedness of the government officials. This illustrates the need for much improvement in the educational work of the responsible officials. This paper does not give any suggestions as to how this should be done, but suggests that the results should be compared to those from studies in other countries, and that future work should relate to the residents' specific knowledge of evacuation plans and to explore their behavioural intentions.
SC

D'Ercole, R., 1991, Vulnérabilité des populations face au risque volcanique: le cas de la région du Cotopaxi (Equateur). Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Université Joseph Fourier - Grenoble I.
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D'Ercole, R., 1994, Mesurer le risque: le volcan Cotopaxi et les populations proches. In: André, Y., Bailly, A., Ducret, B., Guérin, J.-P. (Eds.), Enseigner les Risques Naturels: Pour une Géographie Physique Revisitée. Anthropos / GIP Reclus, Paris, pp. 111-150.
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D'Ercole, R., 1996, Représentation cartographique des facteurs de vulnérabilité des populations exposées à une menace volcanique: application à la région du volcan Cotopaxi (Equateur). Bulletin de l'Institut Français des Etudes Andines 25 (3), 479-507.
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D'Ercole, R. and Peltre, P., 1992, La ville et les volcan: Quito, entre Pichincha et Cotopaxi (Equateur). Cahier des Sciences Humaines 28 (3), 439-459.
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D'Ercole, R. and Rançon, J.-P., 1994, La future éruption de la Montagne Pelée: risque et représentations. Mappemonde 4/1994, 31-36.
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D'Ercole, R. and Rançon, J.-P., 1999, Représentation des risques liés à une éruption future de la Montagne Pelée (Martinique): confrontation des points de vue de populations proches (Saint Pierre, Le Prêcheur, Le Morne-Rouge) et des volcanologues. In: Pagney, F., Leone, F. (Eds.), Les Antilles, Terres à Risques. Karthala, Paris, pp. 165-182.
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Degg, M.R. and Chester, D.K. 2005, 'Seismic and volcanic hazards in Peru: changing attitudes to disaster mitigation.' The Geographical Journal 171 (2): 125-145.
This article begins with some useful statistics about natural hazards, the resulting economic losses and ELDCS. The article then goes on to cover the tectonic and hazards setting of Peru with the aid of some excellent maps. After a section detailing the impacts of earthquake and volcanic hazards on Peru, Degg and Chester highlight the need to not only use the "dominant" hazard mitigation agendas but to give equal weighting to the "alternative" hazard response agenda which incorporates social, political and economic processes that create social vulnerability hazards. The article continues to lead the reader through the many applications and advances of the "alternative" agenda initiated in Peru and globally over a 15 year period starting from the commencement of the decade for natural disaster reduction in 1990. This is a comprehensive study of natural disaster reduction in Peru, yet includes important global issues.
KD

Delica, Z.G., 2003, 'Community Mobilisation for Early Warning in the Philippines'. In Zschau, J. and A.N. Küppers (eds) Early Warning Systems for Natural Disaster Reduction. Berlin: Springer Verlag, pp. 37-48.
Delica presents a case study of a community-based disaster preparedness project in an area affected by lahars in the years following the 1991 eruption of Mt Pinatubo. It focuses on one high-risk village where a Filipino NGO, CONCERN, provided training and support in setting up a community disaster warning and response organisation in 1995. Shortly after the training, the system was put to the test: the whole village was evacuated rapidly when a typhoon triggered a collapse of a lahar-retaining dike.
JT

Davis, M.S.and Ricci, T., 2004, Perceptions of risk for volcanic hazards in Italy: a research note. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 24 (10/11), 157-163.
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Dibben, C.J.L., 1999, Looking beyond eruptions for an explanation of volcanic disasters: vulnerability in volcanic environments. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Luton.
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Dibben, C.J.L. and Chester, D.K., 1999, Human vulnerability in volcanic environments: the case of Furnas, São Miguel, Azores. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 92, 133-150.
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Dominey-Howes, D. and D. Minos-Minopoulos 2004, 'Perceptions of hazard and risk on Santorini.' Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 137(4): 285-310.
Despite the wealth of 'pure' volcanological work that has been done on Santorini, especially as part of the IDNDR's Decade Volcano program, "little work has been conducted on public perceptions of hazard, risk and vulnerability." A questionnaire was designed to investigate this and was distributed to 2 groups - local residents on the island and representatives of the local authorities. During the work carried out it was discovered that, despite the fact that Santorini is said to be "potentially one of the most dangerous volcanoes in Europe," there is no evacuation or volcano emergency plan in place for the island. Also, despite an education program conducted in the 1990's, it appears that public understanding and information is insufficient. The recommendations made by the authors are for educational programs to be repeated and targeted at both the local communities and the high ranking officials. Methods for carrying out this education and what information should be targeted are also suggested. Another recommendation is for the development of a risk management structure, which would include the creation of an emergency plan and also a permanent volcano observatory.
SC

Dove, M.R., 2007a, Volcanic eruptions as metaphor of social integration: a political ecological study of Mount Merapi, Central Java. In: Connell, J., Waddell, E. (Eds.), Environment, Development and Change in Rural Asia-Pacific: Between Local and Global. Routledge, London, pp. 16-37.
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Finnis, K., Johnston, D. and Paton, D., 2004, Volcanic hazard risk perceptions in New Zealand. Tephra 21, 60-64.
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Gaillard, J.-C., 2002, Implications territoriales et ethno-culturelles d'une crise volcanique: le cas de l'éruption du Mont Pinatubo aux Philippines. Annales de Géographie 627-628, 574-591.
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Gaillard, J.-C., 2006, Traditional societies in the face of natural hazards: the 1991 Mt. Pinatubo eruption and the Aetas of the Philippines. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters 24 (1), 5-43.
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Gaillard, J.-C. and Leone, F., 2000, Implications territoriales de l'éruption du Mont Pinatubo pour la minorité autochtone aeta: cas des bassins-versants des rivières Pasig et Sacobia (provinces de Pampanga et Tarlac, Philippines). Cahiers Savoisiens de Géographie 1-2000, 53-68.
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Gaillard, J.-C., D'Ercole, R. and Leone, F., 2001, Cartography of population vulnerability to volcanic hazards and lahars of Mt Pinatubo (Philippines): case of Pasig-Potrero river basin (province of Pampanga). Géomorphologie: Relief, processus, environnement 3/2001, 209-222.
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Greene, M.R., Perry R.W., and Lindell, M.K., 1981, The March 1980 eruptions of Mt. St. Helens: citizen perceptions of volcano hazard. Disasters 5 (1), 49-66.
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Gregg, C.E., B.F., Houghton, Johnston, D.M., Paton, D. and Swanson, D.A., 2004, 'The perception of volcanic risk in Kona communities from Mauna Loa and Hualalai volcanoes, Hawai'i.' Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 130: 179-196.
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Gregg, C. E.,. Houghton, B. F., Paton, D., Swanson, D. A. and Johnston, D. M., 2004, 'Community preparedness for lava flows from Mauna Loa and Hualalai volcanoes, Kona, Hawai'i.' Bulletin of Volcanology 66: 531-540.
These 2 similar papers centre around the Kona community in Hawai'i who are at risk from potential future lava flows from Mauna Loa and Hual?lai. In order to develop effective mitigation plans for this community, the authors explain that firstly the current knowledge needs to be measured. This was achieved via a survey extensively distributed to high school students and adults in the Kona community, which demonstrated there has been a general lack of information made available on this hazard. Even when awareness of the potential hazard is acknowledged it appears that the positives of living in such an area outweigh the perceived risks. Preparedness was also found to be low, and there was no general consensus on what actions should be taken in the event that they should be threatened by a lava flow. The first article finishes with a discussion of how various factors may affect the awareness and preparedness of respondents, and states that there is a need for "education programs that target specific groups." The latter concludes with some "suggested starting points" for how to improve the capability to deal with future lava flows in the area.
SC

Haynes, K., Barclay, J. and Pidgeon, N.F., 2007, An evaluation of volcanic hazard maps as a communication tool on the Caribbean Island of Montserrat. Bulletin of Volcanology http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00445-007-0124-7 (available online from the 24th of March).
Hazard maps are considered essential tools in the communication of volcanic risk between scientists, the local authorities and the public. This paper investigates the efficacy of such maps for the volcanic island of Montserrat in the West Indies using both quantitative and qualitative research techniques. Normal plan view maps, which have been used on the island over the last 10 years of the crisis, are evaluated against specially produced three-dimensional (3D) maps and perspective photographs. The overall results show that ordinary people have problems interpreting their environment as a mapped representation. There was a slight improvement in the use of the 3D maps, especially in terms of topographic recognition. However, the most striking increase in effectiveness was found with the perspective photographs, which enabled people to identify features and their orientation much more readily. For Montserrat it appears that well labelled aerial and perspective photographs are the most effective geo-spatial method of communicating volcanic risks.
KH

Haynes, K., 2006, Volcanic island in crisis: Investigating environmental uncertainty and the complexity it brings. Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol 21, no4 pp21-28 (http://www.ema.gov.au/ajem).
This paper explores how complex socio-political relations on the Caribbean Island of Montserrat have been exacerbated by a volcanic crisis which continues to create difficult emergency management challenges. The paper gives a critical overview of the crisis using relevant literature and describes why the volcanic events have become a human crisis. By drawing on the author's own qualitative and quantitative research, the paper then describes communication issues, in particular the communication and management of uncertainty. The paper discusses the communication role and methods of the scientists and authorities and the importance of informal communications and public participation.
KH

Heijmans, A., 2004, From vulnerability to empowerment. In: Bankoff, G., Frerks, G., Hilhorst, D. (Eds.), 2004. Mapping Vulnerability: Disasters, Development and People. Earthscan, London, pp. 115-127.
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Hirose, H., 1979, 'Volcanic Eruption and Local Politics in Japan: a case study'. Mass Emergencies 4: 53-62.
Study of the eruption of Mt Usu in August 1977, set against the economic and political characteristics of the main towns affected. There is a detailed account of the evacuation, looking at factors affecting emergency decision making, the quality of the assistance provided to the evacuees, and the later decision to end the evacuation. Some political consequences of these actions are also considered.
JT

Hodge, D., Sharp, V. and Marts, M., 1979, Contemporary responses to volcanism: case studies from the Cascade and Hawaii. In: Sheets, J.D., Grayson, D.K. (Eds.), Volcanic Activity and Human Ecology. Academic Press, New York, pp. 221-248.
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Johnston, D.M. and Houghton, B. 1995, Secondary school children's perceptions of natural hazards in the Central North Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Geography 99, 18-26.
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Johnston, D. M. and Bebbington, M.S. et al., 1999, 'Volcanic hazard perceptions: Comparative shifts in knowledge and risk.' Disaster Prevention and Management 8(2): 118-126.
A fairly short paper detailing the results of a survey carried out to assess the change in perceptions of two New Zealand communities both before and after an eruption of Ruapehu. One community experienced some ashfall whereas the other was not impacted directly in this case, but has been in the past. The findings from this survey counters the traditional argument that increased perception leads to greater preparedness, as the self-reported figures for taking protective measures in one community remained the same pre- and post-eruption, whereas in the other community it in fact declined; however, on the whole individuals still regard themselves as more prepared than the 'general public'. Because of this and the generally benign impact on the towns from this eruption, the authors believe a "normalisation bias" is at work, leading the residents to believe future events either will not effect them or they will be able to cope with them.
SC

Keesing, F.M., 1952, The Papuan Orokaiva vs. Mt. Lamington: Cultural Shock and its Aftermath. Human Organization 11: 26-22.
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Kelman. I., 1998, Role of Technology in Managing Vulnerability to Natural Disasters, With Case Studies of Volcanic Disasters on Non-Industrialized Islands. Master of Applied Science dissertation from the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toronto.
Online at http://www.ilankelman.org/masters.html
Using examples of Mount Pinatubo, the Philippines (initial eruption in 1991) and Soufrière Hills, Montserrat (initial eruption in 1995), this dissertation adopts an engineering perspective for examining how technology is used and misused in managing island volcanic eruptions. How engineers and other users of technology hinder or help due to the technology is examined. The dissertation is unusual and helpful in taking a vulnerability perspective based on physical sciences. Consequently, high-level recommendations are provided which are useful for thinking differently and for refocusing the ethos of engineers' training and education. The recommendations are less helpful for operational tasks such as on-the-ground decision making and communicating the issues to different sectors and cultures. As well, limited reference is given to literature on indigenous knowledge, risk perception, and risk communication which would have made important contributions to this work.
IK

Kelman, I., 2005, Operational Ethics for Disaster Research. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 23(3): 141-158.
This paper defines an approach to researching the ethics of disaster-related investigations by asking three questions:
1. Could carrying out disaster research interfere with disaster and risk management activities?
2. Could publishing disaster research interfere with disaster and risk management activities?
3. Should researchers take responsibility for the operational outcomes of their research? Technical rescue is used to explore the questions' details leading to a discussion of the application of operational ethics for field volcanology research. Necessarily superficial, this paper provides only a start for these ideas along with a brief beginning for the volcano-related application. By asking questions which are usually skirted in research and by proposing pathways to investigate the answers, this paper provides useful ideas to be developed further. However, other relevant dimensions are not considered, for instance the role, advantages, and drawbacks of academic ethics committees examining research involving human subjects. As well, input is negligible from other fields which have already undergone similar debates, such as medicine and nuclear physics.
IK

Krasovskaia, I., Gottschalk, L., Saelthun, N.R. and Berg, H., 2001, Perception of the risk of flooding: the case of the 1995 flood in Norway. Hydrological Sciences Journal/Journal des Sciences Hydrologiques [ydrol. Sci. J./J. Sci. Hydrol. Vol. 46, no. 6, pp. 855-868.
This paper provides a conceptual and methodological insight into perception of flood risk among decision makers and the general public in a flood-affected area of Norway. Just as with many hazards flood risk has usually been studied from a scientific and engineering perspective. The paper presents the results of a an investigation and analysis focusing on: (a) the perception of risk for life and health; (b) economic and environmental loss by the two groups; (c) the links for communicating the flood risk message; and (d) appropriate flood mitigation measures in particular situations and the ability of the decision makers to visualize their effects and costs. Krasovskaia recommends that results of such evaluations reveal the need for developing flood assessment policy based on participatory principles.

Other authors and papers re: perception and response.

Enders, J. 2001. Measuring community awareness and preparedness for emergencies. Australian Journal of Emergency Management;16(3):52-8. Useful model of factors that influence adaptation and response (taken form Rhodes and Reinholt)

Douglas Patons papers - New Zealand volcano focus. Forthcoming research with Leonard, G. S and Handmer should be interesting (see below) - community based volcanic risk reduction approaches in New Zealand. See Leonard's http://www.ewc3.org/UK/symposium/default.asp for presentation given at EWCIII in 2006.

John Handmer - papers on importance of informal networks (linked to social capital) in risk reduction.

Paul Slovic - his book The Perception of Risk gives a comprehensive overview.
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Laksono, P.M., 1988, Perception of volcanic hazards: villagers versus government officials in Central Java. In: Dove, M.R. (Ed.), The Real and Imagined Role of Culture in Development: Case Studies from Indonesia. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, pp. 183-200.
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Lamug, C.B., Crittenden, K.S. and Nelson, G.L.M., 1999, Place identity of women of Bacolor. Philippine Sociological Review 47, 21-30.
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Lane, L.R., G.A. Tobin and L.M. Whiteford, 2003, 'Volcanic hazard or economic destitution: hard choices in Baños, Ecuador.' Environmental Hazards 5: 23-34.
This paper provides a case study of the 1999 evacuation of the tourist dependent town of Baños, Ecuador in anticipation of the eruption of Mount Tungurahua. Following the evacuation, many areas in the risk zone experienced heavy ash falls, lahars and landslides but no catastrophic events occurred and Baños remained largely unaffected. The paper examines the choices facing the disaster evacuees of Baños, whose economic recovery and livelihood security were dependent upon the population returning to the high risk area against official warnings and evacuation orders. Lane et al. explore risk perception and response within the context of volcanic risk management and seek to determine how this was influenced by the inherent uncertainty and the prolonged duration of the crisis. They conclude that perception is relative and changeable and a significant determinant of risk related action.
KO

Lane, L.R., 2003, Hazard vulnerability in socio-economic context: an example from Ecuador. Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of South Florida.
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Lirer, L. and Vitelli, L., 1998, 'Volcanic Risk Assessment and Mapping in the Vesuvian Area Using GIS.' Natural Hazards 17: 1-15.
Another example of using GIS for risk assessment in Italy. This paper presents a GIS methodology for assessing risk to people and property from the lava flow hazard in the Vesuvian area. The authors do include vulnerability in the risk equation, but here it is defined as the damage to buildings. The authors assign a monetary value to built-up areas and consider population and housing density in the resulting exposure and risk maps. The usefulness of GIS in evacuation scenarios and land-use planning is also discussed.
CL

Lavigne F., 1999, SIG et zonage des risques volcaniques : application au volcan Merapi, Java, Indonésie. Bulletin Assoc. Géographes Français, 4: 371-382.
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Lavigne, F. and Gunnell, Y., 2006, Recent land cover change and abrupt environmental impacts on Javan volcanoes, Indonesia. Regional Environmental Change, 6, 1-2, 86-100.
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Leone, F., Gaillard, J.-C., 1999. Analysis of the institutional and social responses to the eruption and the lahars of Mount Pinatubo volcano from 1991 to 1998 (Central Luzon, Philippines). Geojournal 49 (2), 223-238.
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Leone, F. and Lesales, T., 2004, Des cartes pour comprendre, évaluer et gérer le risque volcanique en Martinique (Antilles françaises) : de l'intérêt de la cartographie en géographie des risques naturels. In: Wackermann, G. (Ed.), La géographie des risques dans le monde. Ellipses, Paris, pp. 113-129.
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Leone, F. and Lesales, T., 2005, A GIS-based integrated approach for the assessment of volcanic risk: application to Mount Pelée volcano (Martinique, F. W. I.). Philippine Geographical Journal 49 (1-4), 135-149.
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Lewis, J., 1981, Some perspectives on natural disaster vulnerability in Tonga. Pacific Viewpoint 22 (2), 145-162.
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Lindell, M.K. and Perry, R.W., 1993, Risk area residents' changing perception of volcano hazard at Mt. St. Helens. In: Nemec, J., Nigg, J.M., Siccardi, F. (Eds.) Prediction and Perception of Natural Hazards. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 159-166.
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López-Vázquez, E., Fulton, A. and Ibarra-Reguero, P., 2006, Volcanic risk perception, stress and coping strategies of people living near the volcano Popocatepetl. Cities on Volcanoes 4 Conference, 23-27 January 2006, Quito, Ecuador.
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Metzger, P., D'Ercole, R. and Sierra A., 1999, 'Political and scientific uncertainties in volcanic risk management: The yellow alert in Quito in October 1998.' GeoJournal 49: 213-221.
Metzger et al. present a study of the political and scientific uncertainties associated with volcanic risk management based on a case study of the volcanic crisis in Quito, Ecuador in 1998. The paper begins with a description of the volcanic risk presented by the Pichincha volcano for the capital of Ecuador before outlining the scientific context, the political announcement and the decision-making process that preceded the yellow alert. The authors go on to consider how the scientists and political representatives dealt with the problems associated with volcanic risk management, specifically the inherent uncertainty and the prolonged duration of the crisis. Consideration is also given to the social perception of the volcanic crisis and how this changed over time. Metzger et al. conclude the paper with a brief evaluation of the successfulness of Quito's volcanic hazard management strategy.
KO

Mitchell, T., 2006, Building a disaster resilient future: lessons from participatory research on St. Kitts and Montserrat. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University College London.
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Morrow, B.H., 1999, 'Identifying and Mapping Community Vulnerability.' Disasters 23 (1): 1-18.
This paper emphasises how a disaster is socially constructed. The author identifies a number of factors that increase a persons vulnerability to a disaster - this time focusing on the United States, showing that although this country is considered rich by many standards, vulnerability is relative, and vulnerable communities exist everywhere. Vulnerability factors include: economic and material resources; human and personal resources (e.g. health and education); family and social resources (e.g. social networks, 'neighbourliness'); political resources (a household's relation to community decision makers - for example a renter may have little control over the building they live in); and ethnic and racial minorities. Morrow suggests that decision makers and planners need to create 'Community Vulnerability Maps' identifying where these people live - integrating this information in a GIS. She also emphasises how community involvement at all stages of planning and response to a disaster is key to success.
CL

Nolan, M.L., 1979 "Impact of Parícutin on Five Communities." Pp. 293-335 in Volcanic activity and Human Ecology, edited by Sheets, P.D. and Grayson, D.K. New York: Academic Press.
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Nolan, M.L. and Nolan, S., 1993, "Human Communities and their Responses." Pp. 189-214 in Parícutin: The Volcano Born in a Mexican Cornfield, edited by J.F. Luhr and T. Simkin. Phoenix: Geoscience Press Inc.
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Olsen, R. and Olsen, R., 2001, Socioeconomic Reverberations of Earthquake Prediction: Snapshot in Time, Peru 1979-1981. Natural Hazards Rev., Volume 2, Issue 3, pp. 124-131.
A cautionary tale recounting the failings at strategic level as a result of the infamous "Brady Spence" earthquake prediction and warning. The paper examines the social and economic response to a scientific prediction for a strong earthquake to occur off Lima, Peru in mid-1981. Key lessons to be learnt regarding communication of hazard and risk between stakeholder groups.
If relevant see also the book:
Olson, R. Podesta, B and Nigg, J. 1989. The Politics of Earthquake Prediction. Princeton University Press. (old but worth a skim read)

Also related to this and those above is the following book
Comfort, L. 1999. Shared Risk: Complex Systems in Seismic Response. Pergamon

Pareschi, M.T., L. Cavarra, M. Favalli, F. Giannini and A. Meriggi (2000) 'GIS and Volcanic Risk Management.' Natural Hazards 21: 361-379.
A good overview of how GIS can be used for volcanic risk management using two examples from Mt. Etna and Vesuvius. The paper discusses how to utilise technology such as digital elevation models, remote sensing images (e.g. Landsat), vector layers of buildings and roads, hazard maps and population density information for the creation of risk maps, land-use planning, evacuation scenarios etc.
CL

Oppenheimer, C., 1991, People and volcanoes: Taal Island, Philippines. Geology Today January-February, 19-23.
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Panell, S. 1999. "Did the Earth Move for you? The Social Seismology of a Natural Disaster in Maluku, Eastern Indonesia." The Australian Journal of Anthropology 10(2): 129-143.
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Parker, R.S., 1998, 'Proyecto Nueva Vida Armero'. In Anderson, M.B. and P.J. Woodrow (eds.) Rising from the Ashes: Development Strategies in Times of Disaster. London: IT Publications, pp. 157-183.
This case study looks at the aftermath of the 1985 Nevado del Ruiz eruption in Colombia that destroyed the town of Armero. It covers the disaster's effects on survivors, organised responses, and particularly the response of Save the Children Colombia. Following a short account of SCF's emergency intervention, there is a more detailed discussion of the 'Nueva Vida' (new life) project, a participatory initiative to establish a sustainable new community. This tackled issues of production and employment, housing, education, health and social integration. The project's impact on the community's vulnerabilities and capacities is analysed, and some broader lessons for recovery programmes are presented.
JT

Paton, D., Johnston, D., Bebbington, M.S. and Lai, C.-D., Houghton, B.F., 2001, Direct and vicarious experience of volcanic hazards: implications for risk perception and adjustment adoption. Australian Journal of Emergency Management 15 (4), 58-63.
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Perry R.W., 1990, Volcanic hazard perceptions at Mt. Shasta. The Environmental Professional 12, 312-318.
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Perry, R.W., Lindell, M.K. and Greene, M.R., 1982, Threat perception and public response to volcano hazard. The Journal of Social Psychology 116, 199-204.
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Perry, R.W. and Lindell, M.K., 1990a, Living with Mount St. Helens: Human Adjustment to Volcano Hazards. Washington State University Press, Pullman.
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Perry, R.W. and Lindell, M.K., 1990b, Public perception of volcano hazard at Mt. St. Helens. International Workshop on the Prediction and Perception of Natural Hazards, United Nations, National Science Foundation, Gruppo Nazionale per la Difesa dalle Catastrofi Idrogeologiche, Water Resource Research and Documentation Centre, Disaster Research Center, Geneva Ricerche, 22-26 October 1990, Perugia, Italy.
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Rees, J.D., 1970, "Paricutin Revisited: A Review of Man's Attempts to Adapt to Ecological Changes Resulting from Volcanic Catastrophe." Geoforum 4-1970: 7-25.
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Rodolfo, K.S., 1995, Pinatubo and the Politics of Lahar: Eruption and Aftermath, 1991. University of the Philippines Press, Quezon City.
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Schlehe, J., 2007, Cultural Politics of Natural Disasters: Discourses on Volcanic Eruptions in Indonesia. In: M. J. Casimir (ed.): Culture and the changing environment. Uncertainty, Cognition, and Risk Management in Cross-Cultural Perspective. Oxford/New York: Berghahn.
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Seitz, S., 1998, Coping Strategies in an Ethnic Minority Group: The Aeta of Mt Pinatubo, Disaster, Vol.22, No.1, p 76-90.
Seitz describes the adaptations made by the indigenous population of the slopes of Mt Pinatubo during and after the 1991 eruption. The paper highlights the enormous upheaval that can be caused by a volcanic eruption and emphasises that this social disturbance is long term. It is also gives positive view of traditionally independent societies and how they can adapt their lifestyles to become resilient to natural hazards. These people provide an insight into refining post-disaster recovery.
KD

Seitz, S., 2000, Bewältigung einer Naturalkatastrophe: Die Aeta am Mt. Pinatubo (Philippinen). Geographische Rundschau 52(4): 49-55.
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Seitz, S., 2004, The Aeta at the Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines: A Minority Group Coping with Disaster. New Day Publishers, Quezon City.
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Sigurdsson, H., Houghton, B., McNutt, S.R., Rymer, H. and Stix, J., (eds.) 2000, Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. San Diego, California: Academic Press.
An impressive tome on volcanoes covering the latest research and practice of some aspects of the field, this volume would be essential to consult for most aspects of physical volcanology, but it is disappointing in many areas of volcano-related social science. Part IX provides an excellent overview of volcanoes contributing to society, from geothermal resources to artistic gains, yet much of this discussion, such as on volcanic soils, is highly technical without balancing detail on societal aspects. Similarly, mental health effects are not detailed to the same level as physical health effects while the chapter on volcanic warnings, while useful, has zero social science references. Despite several chapters regarding scientific knowledge of and scientific approaches to volcanoes, no chapter is dedicated to indigenous knowledges of or indigenous approaches to volcanoes. Although vulnerability and societal aspects of volcanoes deserve more prominence, the editors have impressively brought together international, experienced authors to summarise work in a readable manner on many dimensions of volcanic hazards including solid chapters on risk management and risk education and intervention. But the volume is far from "a complete reference guide, providing a comprehensive view of volcanism" as promised in the Preface. For the physical sciences of volcanism, yes. For volcanism, no.
IK

Shimizu, H., 1992, After the Eruption: Pinatubo Aetas at the Crisis of their Survival. Tokyo: Foundation for Human Rights in Asia.
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Shimizu, H., 2001, The Orphans of Pinatubo: The Ayta Struggle for Existence. Solidaridad Publishing House, Quezon City.
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Simkin, T., Siebert, L. and Blong, R. 2001, Volcano Fatalities--Lessons from the Historical Record. Science 291 (5502), 255.
A helpful overview of volcanic fatalities with less contribution to lessons from the historical record. The authors have done an exceptional job in trying to identify all people killed by volcanoes since AD 1. The discussion on numbers of volcanic fatalities compared to numbers of fatal volcanic events is particularly helpful. They reasonably describe their method, indicating some weaknesses, but limitations should have been explored further. For example, qualitative historical estimates of fatalities are translated into numbers. The paper fairly emphasises that these numbers are guesses and minimally impact the results. Then why use them? Similarly, limitations in the fatality estimates are discussed, but not limitations in the estimates of the number of fatal volcanic events. The paper is naïve regarding lessons; for instance, identifying "Improved building codes and education [as] relatively easy solutions to prevent roof collapse" without acknowledging the literature on the challenges inherent in implementing these activities. This paper is an important beginning for understanding volcanic fatalities, but neglects social science research and is far from the final word. The facts provided are needed; the analysis provided could be improved.
IK

Spence, R. Kelman, I., Calogero, E., Toyos, G., Baxter, P. and Komorowski J.C. 2005, 'Modelling expected physical impacts and human casualties from explosive volcanic eruptions.' Natural Hazards and Earth Systems Sciences 5: 1003-1015.
This paper presents a multi-hazard, multi-vulnerability impact model developed based on field work around, and for application to, European volcanoes that could significantly damage human settlements. Inputs to and outputs from the model are detailed along with the approach used to display the results in GIS. Specific application is made to Guadeloupe. The paper provides a useful discussion of the technical limitations of the model, but minimally addresses the communication challenges and does not implement good practice in displaying the GIS results. The method is usefully explained and illustrated and is transferable elsewhere, but more attention could have been paid to clearly presenting the results, the maps, and their limitations.
IK

Stefánson, R., 2003, 'Information and Warnings to Authorities and to the Public about Seismic and Volcanic Hazards in Iceland'. In Zschau, J. and A.N. Küppers (eds.) Early Warning Systems for Natural Disaster Reduction. Berlin: Springer Verlag, pp. 521-526.
A short description of the warning system in Iceland, outlining the role of various institutions, the specific monitoring and systems used, and types of warnings given.
JT

Tayag, J.C. 1985, Socio-economic impacts of the 1984 Mayon eruption. Unpublished report, Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Quezon City.
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Tayag, J.C. and Punongbayan, R.S. 1994, Volcanic disaster mitigation in the Philippines: experience from Mt. Pinatubo. Disasters 18 (1), 1-15.
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Tayag, J.C., Insauriga, S.I., Ringor, A. and Belo, M., 1996, People's response to eruption warning: the Pinatubo experience, 1991-1992. In: Newhall, C.G., Punongbayan, R.S. (Eds.), Fire and Mud: Eruptions and Lahars of Mt Pinatubo. Philippines. University of Washington Press / Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Seattle / Quezon City, pp. 87-106.
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Termelo, R.N. 1997, Managing a Disaster: A Case of Taal Volcano Island. Bureau of Emergency Assistance, Department of Social Welfare and Development, Quezon City.
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Thywissen, K., 2006, Components of Risk - A Comparative Glossary. In Birkmann, J. (ed.) Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazards. UNU Press: Tokyo.
This comparative glossary focuses on a selection of terms central to the cause-and-effect chain of disaster reduction including capacity, catastrophe, disaster, exposure, hazard, human security, resilience, risk and vulnerability. The glossary aims to inform experts from different disciplines about the various (sometimes contradictory) definitions used in the field of disaster management in an attempt to end the 'Babelonian Confusion'. Disciplines and sectors represented include: the insurance industry; United Nations; natural, social and multidisciplinary sciences; economics; engineering; governance/policy; civil society; and disaster relief. While undoubtedly addressing the need for a shared language and shared concepts, the glossary fails to offer broad working definitions for each of the key terms. This is largely a reflection of the need to be 'precise enough to delineate the terms from each other, yet flexible and broad enough so as to be applicable across sectors, disciplines, and scales on which disaster reduction operates'. Instead, Thywissen sets out the key characteristics of the main terms with a view to developing a coherent framework whereby each term can be defined more precisely to fit the specific context, use and scale. The paper is undoubtedly a step towards the development of 'a common vocabulary of unique, well formulated definitions and concepts' enabling collaboration and communication free of misunderstanding.
KO

Tilling, R.I., 2003, 'Volcano Monitoring and Eruption Warnings'. In Zschau, J. and A.N. Küppers (eds) Early Warning Systems for Natural Disaster Reduction. Berlin: Springer Verlag, pp. 505-510.
A brief overview of the main elements of effective volcanic warning and response systems, with reference to recent events. The bibliography contains a number of key texts.
JT

Tobin, G.A., 1999, 'Sustainability and community resilience: the holy grail of hazards planning?' Environmental Hazards 1: 13-25.
This paper focuses on the role of sustainability and community resilience in hazard mitigation and evaluates the successfulness of these initiatives. While Tobin acknowledges the complex relationship between community sustainability and hazard events, he proposes three interrelated theoretical models for analysis: a mitigation model, a structural-cognitive model (including societal changes; situational factors e.g. physical location, age, income, education and social networks; and cognitive factors including psychological and attitudinal factors) and a recovery model (including government policies and relief aid; re-accumulation of capital and resource depletion). The models are examined in relation to Florida, USA which illustrates many of the complex social, economic and global issues that affect disaster preparedness and mitigation worldwide. Creating sustainable and resilient communities may be relatively easy from a theoretical perspective however findings suggest that the practical implementation of comprehensive plans is much more elusive. While efforts to minimise the effects of disasters are important, Tobin concludes that truly sustainable and resilient communities are not feasible in the current socio-political-economic environment.

Although this paper does not focus specifically on volcanic hazards, Tobin highlights the shift that has taken place within the field of hazard management and the increasing focus on social science related issues.
KO

Tobin, G.A. and L.A. Whiteford, 2002, 'Community Resilience and Volcano Hazard: The Eruption of Tungurahua and Evacuation of the Faldas in Ecuador.' Disaster 26(1): 28-48.
Through a series of social research methods, structured interviews and focus groups, Tobin and Whiteford have comprehensively explored community resilience after volcanic unrest. They focused on the health problems related to evacuations after the 1999 eruption of Tungurahua, Ecuador. The article gives the reader a fresh view on evacuation procedures from the evacuee's perspective and demonstrates that although theoretically the evacuations were a success (there were no fatalities from volcanic activity) in the long term the communities suffered in temporary shelters. The paper raises important issues about pre- and post-disaster planning to ensure community resilience.
KD

Todesco, M., A. Neri, et al., 2006, 'E VIVO: Virtual eruptions at Vesuvius; A multimedia tool to illustrate numerical modeling to a general public.' Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 155(3-4): 323-328.
A "short communication" on a new tool for visual communication. The CD-ROM aims to improve awareness of the hazard, and also to hopefully establish confidence in the work of the scientists by providing the 'typical' descriptions of volcanic activity but also information on uncertainties related to such activity. It is hoped that after testing, this information can eventually be made widely available through the world wide web.
SC

To Waninara, C.G., 2000, The 1994 Rabaul Volcanic Eruption: Human Sector Impacts on the Tolai Displaced Communities. Goroka: Melanesian Research Institute.
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Yoshii, H., 1992, Disaster warning and social response: the eruption of Mt. Unzen in Japan. Disaster Management 4, 207-214.
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